Ruthenium

Ruthenium is a dark grey, shiny metallic precious metal. It is used as a catalyst in the chemical industry. Many plastics are produced with the help of ruthenium. Ruthenium is also used together with other metals as alloys. It makes the alloys harder than the pure metals, making aeroplane turbines, for example, more stable.

How can I come into contact with this material?

Wissenschaftler bei der Arbeit an den digitalen Tablet-Daten des chemischen Elements Ruthenium. Bildquelle: angellodeco – stock.adobe.com
© angellodeco – stock.adobe.com

Printed circuit boards and their components contain ruthenium. Ruthenium is located inside the component, so contact is rather unlikely. Dentures may contain ruthenium, but the quantities are very small. Ruthenium is chemically very resistant, so it is almost never released.

In the chemical industry, ruthenium is used as a catalyst in reactors. No one except the responsible personnel has access to it. But even if the catalyst is released in an extremely unlikely accident, the quantities of ruthenium are very small and therefore not critical for humans. Ruthenium catalysts are highly efficient, but expensive and therefore only available in small quantities in the reactor.

Medical applications of ruthenium are still at the research stage. It will therefore not (yet) be found in doctors’ surgeries or clinics.

Is there any risk from this material to humans and the environment?

The amount of ruthenium that could be ingested via direct contact with the metal or its alloys is so low that no harmful effects are to be feared. Ruthenium is found in catalysts in complex compounds. These have a high bioavailability. They are therefore used in the smallest possible quantities and in closed systems.

Conclusion

Ruthenium is rarely found in our everyday lives. The quantities are so small that it is harmless to humans and other living organisms in the environment.

By the way…

Compared to almost all other elements, ruthenium also has a non-natural source: it is a component of spent fuel rods from nuclear power plants. Ruthenium itself does not emit radiation. Despite the high price of ruthenium, it is not separated because of the radiating elements. Ruthenium can be obtained from the transmutation of uranium, for example. This transmutation was already the goal of the alchemists who wanted to turn lead into gold.

Properties and Applications


Ruthenium (from Latin ruthenia: ‘Russia’, the home country of the discoverer, chemical Ru) is a precious and expensive metal. In appearance, ruthenium is not very different from many other metals; it is dark grey and has a metallic sheen. Because it is a noble metal, it does not dissolve in dilute acids and not even in very strong oxidising acids such as aqua regia. The ruthenium metal can only be dissolved using drastic methods such as a molten salt of potassium hydroxide and potassium nitrate .

Peroidensystem-Ruthenium markiert. Bildquelle: Tomasz Zajda -stock.adobe.com
@ Tomasz Zajda – stock.adobe.com



Ruthenium is often used as an element or in the form of chemical compounds in the chemical industry, similar to other platinum group elements, as a very effective catalyst. Because ruthenium is a transition metal, ruthenium compounds can be present in many oxidation states(-2, and all between 0 and 8). This makes them particularly suitable as catalysts, as the many possible oxidation states help with catalytic processes meaning that ruthenium can serve as a kind of electron buffer.

The chemical industry therefore also uses ruthenium in catalytic processes for the reduction or oxidation of compounds and for other economically important processes such as the Fischer-Tropsch process, modified Haber-Bosch processes and many other chemical reactions that cover a broad spectrum of chemical syntheses.

Ruthenium forms oxides with oxygen. A special property of ruthenium is the volatility of its most oxygen-rich oxide. Despite the high molecular weight of ruthenium tetroxide, it can be vaporised, which somewhat simplifies the extraction of ruthenium zotpressInText item="{4274171:KQCDUAK7}"].

Ruthenium is also used in many other applications. It has good mechanical strength and improves the properties of alloys by making them harder. This is used, for example, in turbine blades for aircraft engines. Ruthenium is also used in wear-resistant electrical contacts, the machine tool industry, as well as the petrochemical and chemical industries. In electronics, connectors, thick-film resistors, chip resistors, photovoltaic cells or computer hard drives made of ruthenium alloys or compounds are used .

In the medical field, scientists are researching applications for ruthenium to suppress the immune system and as an antimicrobial or antibiotic agent. They are also investigating possible applications in cancer therapy , either directly by pharmaceutical-chemical means or as a radioactive isotope as a radiation source for tumour irradiation. Ruthenium compounds are also used in medical analysis.

Finely dispersed ruthenium can self-ignite in the air or even explode, especially when heated.

Occurence and Production

99,99 % feines Rutheniumkristall, durch Dampfabscheidung gezüchtet
Ruthenium crystal © Björn-Wylezich – stock.adobe.com

Like the other platinum group elements rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium and platinum, ruthenium is rarely found. It usually occurs together with the other platinum group elements and is referred to as an associated element. As a precious metal, it also occurs as a solid, i.e. elemental metal. In addition, there are various ores in which ruthenium is present together with other metals as sulphides. One ruthenium-rich ore is laurite (RuS2), which formally has the highest ruthenium content of all mined ores.

As ruthenium is also present in small quantities in nickel ores, it also occurs during the purification of raw nickel. Due to the large amount of nickel produced, this is therefore a significant source of ruthenium.

Most ruthenium comes from South Africa. As other sources are largely absent, there is talk of an increased country risk, because if production there were to fail, it would be difficult to replace it with other sources .

In addition to natural deposits, spent fuel rods from nuclear power plants also contain ruthenium. They are produced during the nuclear fission process and are therefore not of natural origin. However, as ruthenium is present here together with other radioactive elements, it is not used for industrial purposes

The physical and chemical properties of the platinum group elements are very similar. This is why they are usually difficult to separate from each other. The separation process is lengthy and involves many stages. Depending on the proportion of ruthenium in the mixture to be separated, different procedures are used. Strong chemicals such as chlorine or aqua regia are often used for the separation process. The special feature that the ruthenium tetroxide is easily vaporised is normally exploited in the separation process, it is then distilled off. At the same time, the other platinum group elements are also separated and purified . The complex separation process and the rare occurrence lead to the high price of ruthenium.

 

Production



Ruthenium is one of the rarest precious metals on Earth and is primarily obtained as a by-product of platinum mining. Platinum mining itself is linked to the extraction of metals such as copper, nickel, and iron. As a result, many sustainability indicators for ruthenium are difficult or even impossible to determine. Typically, during processing, the other platinum group metals are separated first, leaving ruthenium behind.



The annual production volume is approximately 20–30 tons. Global reserves are estimated at around 5,000 tons. The composition of mined platinum metal mixtures varies significantly depending on the geochemical formation. Russia and South Africa are major producing countries. Platinum metals in South Africa contain on average 11% ruthenium, whereas Russian deposits contain only about 2% ruthenium.



In general, demand for ruthenium is increasing, particularly for electrical components and as a catalyst in the production of nitric acid. Due to its rarity, the global market frequently experiences supply shortages and price fluctuations for ruthenium.



Ruthenium could also be recovered from non-natural sources. It is a component of spent nuclear fuel rods, where it is formed during the transmutation of uranium. Although ruthenium itself is not radioactive, this source is currently not utilized due to the presence of other radioactive elements.

Ressourcen consumpting during processing

The extraction of ruthenium is complex and resource-intensive. It requires large amounts of energy, particularly for heating in specialized furnaces. In addition, numerous chemicals such as hydrochloric acid, as well as large quantities of water, are used to purify the metal.


Safety

Ruthenium is non-toxic in its metallic form. However, in compounds with other substances, it can be corrosive and may cause skin and eye damage as well as respiratory irritation. The effects on environmental organisms have not yet been well studied. It is assumed that similar toxic effects as in humans may occur.

In general, however, humans and environmental organisms have limited exposure to ruthenium and its compounds, as the material is so rare. In powder form, ruthenium can be flammable.


Emissions



Although ruthenium is primarily obtained as a by-product of mining other metals, the extraction of the primary ores generates substantial amounts of waste rock. This waste often remains in the vicinity of the mines. Chlorine and hydrochloric acid are required for the extraction and processing of ruthenium. During these processes, heavy metals and other, often toxic, compounds can be released. Further processing sometimes takes place at very high temperatures, which leads to carbon dioxide emissions (depending on how the energy used is generated). Washing the ore can produce heavy metal-containing sludges that, in some mining regions, contaminate rivers and groundwater.

Social Aspects

Ruthenium is primarily mined in South Africa and Russia. The weighted country risk for the countries of origin, based on the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators, indicates a medium risk for South Africa and a high risk for Russia (as of 2023). This implies, among other things, insufficient quality controls, limited anti-corruption enforcement, and restricted rule of law.

In order to ensure environmentally responsible metal production, it is becoming increasingly important within the EU to closely monitor the origin and transportation within the supply chain. The German Supply Chain Due Diligence Act (Lieferkettensorgfaltspflichtengesetz) requires companies with more than 3,000 employees to document and certify social standards and implement occupational health and safety measures. The aim is to handle human rights and environmental risks along the supply chain in a more transparent and responsible manner.

The weighted country risk is a concept from international finance and investment analysis that aims to quantitatively assess a country’s risks — such as political instability, economic uncertainty, or legal framework conditions — and incorporate them into financial decision-making.

What does “weighted” country risk mean?


  • Country risk consists of various components, for example:

  • Political risk (e.g., expropriation, civil unrest)

  • Economic risk (e.g., inflation, insolvency)

  • Transfer or convertibility risk (e.g., foreign exchange controls)

These components are weighted differently depending on their relevance to a specific project or company. This means, for example, that a company heavily dependent on exports will assign greater weight to transfer restriction risk than a company operating primarily in the domestic market.


Waste and recycling

Due to the extremely rare occurrence of ruthenium (it is the 78th rarest metal on Earth) and its versatile use as a catalyst and as a component in electrical devices, recycling is economically attractive. However, ruthenium is difficult to recycle. On the one hand, this is due to its very high melting point (above 1,500 °C), which makes the process highly energy-intensive. On the other hand, ruthenium is typically used in alloys — mixtures with other metals — which complicates its separation. Significant research efforts are underway to develop processes that simplify the recycling of ruthenium.

In addition, ruthenium could potentially be recovered from spent nuclear fuel elements. However, due to the radioactivity of the other elements present, the process is highly complex.

The disposal of ruthenium-containing waste, such as used electrical contacts, can lead to environmental pollution. Ruthenium compounds may be toxic to humans and environmental organisms.


How can the material be made more sustainable?

In some applications, ruthenium can be replaced by other materials, for example by osmium or iridium in electrical contacts, or by cobalt or molybdenum in electrical resistors. However, these substitute materials are also rare and/or toxic.

Ruthenium can also be produced from other chemical elements (such as technetium-99) through neutron irradiation. In the future, this method could play an important role in the production of ruthenium. However, it would not significantly reduce the environmental impacts of mining, since other materials such as platinum would still need to be extracted.

In particular, the social aspects of sustainability can be improved through greater transparency in supply chains. Various international organizations are working on traceability systems for platinum group metals, including ruthenium (certification schemes). These ensure that certain social and safety standards are upheld in mining operations.

Further Information:


Ruthenium belongs to the platinum group elements (PGE) and can be used in a variety of ways. However, exposure in potentially harmful quantities is unlikely due to the small quantities used. Even though ruthenium is a precious metal, it could be used as a drug, e.g. against cancer, like platinum in complex compounds.

 

Everyday contact


Wherever durable compounds are used in electronics, harder metal alloys, e.g. in dentures, or catalytic properties, e.g. in hydrogen production ruthenium also plays a role. However, the quantities used or required in each case are very small. In addition, the parts used in smartphones, for example, usually prevent direct contact. Just like platinum, ruthenium is also used in various jewelry alloys, but unlike nickel, it has no allergenic effect, so this jewelry is also no problem for allergy sufferers. In medicine, ruthenium complexes are being researched for their use as anti-tumor agents. In contrast to platinum, which has been used for decades, ruthenium has fewer side effects, but must also be used in much higher doses. There are so many different PGE complexes in research or in use that they cannot all be directly compared with each other .

 

Situation at the Workplace

All PGE are used in a wide variety of applications and could therefore also play a role in the workplace when it comes to health hazards for workers. However, there are no limit values for PGEs, as they are used in such small quantities that they do not pose a potential risk. A limit value for inhalation exposure has only been set for certain platinum compounds (platinum compounds: <2 µg/m³ – List of MAK and BAT Values 2024). In a 2014 pilot study on ruthenium, it was shown that exposure is less than 1 ng/cm² skin. However, ruthenium and other PGE will certainly be used more frequently in products and processes in the future, as they have important catalytic effects, e.g. to produce hydrogen. It can therefore be assumed that their use will increase, even if these elements are very rare and therefore very expensive. An overview of actual exposures to PGE shows that platinum appears to be the most important element, followed by palladium and rhodium, while ruthenium is used in such small quantities that it does not play a role in most studies .

 

Products and Customer

Like other PGE, ruthenium is mainly used as an alloy in electronic devices. Direct exposure of the consumer via this route is unlikely. However, there are other applications, e.g. in dentures or jewelry, which lead to direct contact. However, ruthenium has no proven effect on the skin (it is considered to be hypoallergenic – various sources on the internet), so there are currently no concerns about the use of ruthenium in these products.

 

In the workplace, PGE are generally relevant and the limit value should be observed. However, the potential effect of ruthenium in particular is so low that there are no concerns either in the workplace or for the consumer.

Ruthenium (Ru) is a rare element. It belongs to the platinum group elements (PGE) and is used in various industrial applications, including as a component of electrocatalysts in wastewater treatment. Its release into the environment occurs through human activities, raising concerns about its ecotoxicological impacts.

Release


Wastewater treatment and other industrial applications release ruthenium compounds, particularly in the form of ruthenium dioxide (RuO₂). These compounds can enter aquatic systems either directly through the leaching of electrodes or indirectly through oxidation processes used in the treatment of tannery wastewater. For example, an Ru/C electrode used in phenol oxidation exhibits excellent durability with minimal ruthenium release. However, repeated cycles could contribute to the release of trace elements into the environment .

As a side effect, the oxidation of chromium (Cr) during electrochemical processes with ruthenium electrodes can convert chromium(III) into the more toxic form, chromium(VI). This could further impact aquatic ecosystems .

 

Results from the laboratory on release

Scientists are studying lipophilic Ru(II) complexes in oxygen-rich environments, where these complexes may release potentially toxic byproducts. The stability of these complexes varies significantly depending on their chemical structure and environmental conditions .

 

Although ruthenium-based materials offer significant industrial advantages, their potential release and transformation in the environment must be further studied to better understand the long-term effects of trace emissions and the toxicity of byproducts.

The absorption of ruthenium into the body is strongly dependent on the form and the oxidation state in which the ruthenium is found. As Ru(VIII) in the form of ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4), for example, it is gaseous and highly volatile and can be easily inhaled through the lungs. In contrast, it is particulate as ruthenium dioxide [Ru(IV)O2]. The quantity of molecules or particles absorbed via the gastrointestinal tract or the lungs is very small.

 

Uptake via the Lung – Inhalation


After inhalation of gaseous ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4), no ruthenium was found in peripheral organs and the biological half-life in the body was determined to be 15 days. In animal experiments with radiolabeled ruthenium, it was also shown that the largest fraction remains in the upper respiratory tract and the residence time in the body is 0.7 days for 92% of the applied amount. The exposure of internal organs is 0.3% of the applied amount and below .

 

Uptake via the skin


A pilot study was able to show that in a South African factory where PGE are handled, the skin of workers can be exposed. Despite wearing protective gloves, contamination of the fingers was detected, which also indicated incorrect handling of the protective equipment. However, the amount detected was usually less than one ng/cm² of skin and most samples were below the detection limit. There is no evidence of absorption through the skin. However, there is a study in rats that was able to detect excretion through the skin after injection of radioactive ruthenium .

 

Uptake via the gastrointestinal Tract

Absorption via the gastrointestinal tract is not the focus with ruthenium. Researchers conducted a study in 1969 in which they fed mussels radioactively labelled ruthenium (103Ru) in the form of chloride salts. Volunteers then ate the mussels. The researchers then measured the distribution in the body of the subjects and the excretion of the radioactively labelled ruthenium. 95% of the ruthenium was excreted within the first three days. In the same study, volunteers were directly exposed to various labeled chloride compounds of ruthenium (III) and (IV). In these cases, too, 96% of the ruthenium compounds were excreted after 2-3 days. A later study from 2001 also investigated labeled ruthenium chloride, which was administered orally and also injected directly into the blood of volunteers. In this study, Ruthenium ingested via the gastrointestinal tract showed a very low absorption rate, which was even below the expected or predicted levels. However, the injected ruthenium chloride remained in the body significantly longer. Administered as an aqueous solution, the mean retention for ruthenium compounds is 0.01 and in solid food 0.004. In general, absorption via the gastrointestinal tract is not considered problematic .

 

Uptake via medical applications

© totojang1977 - stock.adobe.com
© totojang1977 – stock.adobe.com

Like the other PGEs, ruthenium is also being tested in various compounds as a potential therapeutic agent, e.g. for tumor treatments. Although this research has been carried out for over 40 years, various structures are being considered and the toxicity compared to normal healthy tissue is relatively low, none of these substances have yet been able to establish themselves in clinical trials. However, ruthenium complexes are not only tested as anti-tumor agents, there are also considerations for immunosuppressive or anti-bacterial effects. New studies also show a possible use of ruthenium(IV) dioxide nanoparticles (RuO2) as antioxidants and against Alzheimer’s disease .

 

An intake of ruthenium, regardless of the form or compound, has not yet been proven outside of medical applications and is rather unlikely. However, increased use in products or technological applications in the future may also indicate increased human exposure.

Ruthenium interacts differently with environmental organisms depending on its form. Its effects range from being beneficial at low doses for pure ruthenium to toxic at higher concentrations of certain ruthenium compounds and complexes.

 

Uptake in environmental organisms

Ru complexes, particularly lipophilic forms, exhibit a high bioaccumulation potential, meaning they accumulate in the living environment. Lipophilicity facilitates transfer across biological membranes, allowing these compounds to be taken up by aquatic organisms such as zebrafish embryos. The higher the concentration, the greater the toxicity. In contrast, hydrophilic Ru complexes show lower uptake, indicating a lower environmental risk .

Genotoxicity studies have shown that the Ru(Law) complex exhibits lower toxicity than the Ru(Lap) complex. The latter causes developmental delays and leads to death at higher concentrations .

 

Toxicity

Harmful ruthenium compounds slow the growth of zebrafish embryos, causing malformations such as a curved spine, heart swelling, and increased mortality. When the protective eggshell is removed, these effects worsen as embryos lose their natural defense. Less harmful, so-called antioxidative ruthenium compounds show minimal negative effects and are considered environmentally safe.

A specific ruthenium compound, which is also being tested as an anticancer drug, disrupts blood vessel formation at high concentrations (above 60 µM). This leads to increased mortality and malformations in zebrafish.

Studies with two ruthenium-containing drugs in zebrafish showed that both had little impact on the formation of new blood vessels. However, they delayed the regrowth of the tail fin and slowed cell division. One drug reduced blood vessel branching, while the other disrupted cell structure and blocked the transport of essential substances. These effects could potentially help mitigate chemotherapy side effects.

A comparison between a ruthenium compound and the platinum-based drug Cisplatin revealed that both accumulated in zebrafish tissues—the higher the concentration, the greater the accumulation. Cisplatin caused delayed hatching and accumulated in the eggshell, suggesting differences in uptake and mechanism of action. PMC79 did not delay hatching but caused organ damage, such as yolk sac swelling.

Overall, Cisplatin is more harmful than organic ruthenium compounds, as it leads to more severe effects such as delayed hatching and eggshell accumulation, whereas ruthenium compounds exhibit fewer side effects .

 

The ecotoxicological effects of ruthenium strongly depend on its form. Pure ruthenium and some complexes pose minimal risk. In contrast, lipophilic and pro-oxidative forms can cause significant developmental and metabolic disturbances in aquatic organisms.

Due to the almost non-existent use of ruthenium, there are no studies on toxicology in humans. Only a few studies deal with the possible effect of ruthenium nanoparticles in mammals, but find a protective effect against oxygen radicals rather than a toxicity of the ruthenium particles.

 

Behaviour inside the Body

Ruthenium is only absorbed into the body in very small quantities. For this reason, the few studies that have tested the toxic effect of ruthenium particles have mostly investigated the effect after intravenous injection. However, even after direct exposure by injection, there was no evidence of organ toxicity in the liver, spleen or kidney. It could also be shown that the scavenger cells in the body, the macrophages, took up the ruthenium particles. RuO2 nanoparticles coated with a polymer (polyvinylpyrrolidone = PVP) even had a protective effect in mice and mitigated oxidative stress caused by chemicals. Various organic complexes, on the other hand, show a toxic effect on tumor cells, but are at the same time less toxic to normal body cells compared to the related compounds of platinum .

 

Uptake and Effects in Cells

Ruthenium nanoparticles have shown antioxidant effects in treated cells. RuO2-PVP nanoparticles were able to significantly reduce the effect of UV light or hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Further studies must show whether other forms of ruthenium can also have such a protective effect. There are currently (2025) too few studies that would allow a reliable statement to be made on the effect of ruthenium nanoparticles .

 

There are only a few scientific studies on the toxicity of ruthenium dioxide nanoparticles. These show that they protect against oxidative stress, but are not toxic themselves. However, as there are too few studies, it is not possible to make any reliable statements.

 

The distribution of ruthenium in the environment depends on its chemical form and applications. Lipophilic complexes are more likely to accumulate in organisms, while hydrophilic forms disperse more easily in aquatic systems.

 

Transport


Ru complexes released from industrial applications enter ecosystems through wastewater discharges. Lipophilic Ru compounds accumulate in biological tissues, whereas hydrophilic forms are excreted more quickly by organisms. However, hydrophilic Ru complexes tend to spread more extensively in aquatic systems .

 

Transformation

Environmental factors such as oxygen exposure and light influence the stability of Ru compounds. Ru(II) complexes degrade under oxygen-rich conditions, forming potentially toxic byproducts. This degradation process can enhance their environmental impact .

 

Like its toxicity, the environmental behaviour of ruthenium is influenced by its chemical properties. This explains the significant differences in its transport and persistence in the environment. Lipophilic complexes tend to accumulate more, whereas hydrophilic compounds are less persistent. Understanding these differences is crucial for better assessing the environmental impact of ruthenium-based materials.

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