Platinum is a rare precious metal. It is used in the manufacture of jewellery, in vehicle catalytic converters, as a chemical catalyst, in laboratory equipment, dental implants, materials for electrical contacts and also in medicine.
How can I come into contact with this material?
Wearing of platinum jewellery is unproblematic. Platinum particles are used in many technical applications e.g. for the manufacturing of electrical switch contacts, heat conductors or thermocouples. Due to its high melting temperature and corrosion resistance it is also applied in the construction of medical and technical devices. But for all these cases there is a limited chance for direct contact with free platinum particles. 60% of the global demand for platinum is used for automotive catalysts. Since small amounts of the catalyst are being released into the exhaust stream, there is the possibility for inadvertent respiratory contact with platinum nanoparticles by inhalation of car exhaust fumes.
Cancer treatment (Chemotherapy) makes use of a specific platinum complex called Cisplatin or cis-platinum that acts toxic for both normal and cancerous cells.
Is there any risk from this material to humans and the environment?
It is possible that very small platinum particles (originating e.g. from car exhaust fumes) can be taken into the body during breathing in. These particles could then – to a certain extend – migrate from the lungs via the bloodstream to the liver where they do not cause any significant damage. In general platinum nanoparticles are considered to be non-toxic. The platinum-containing anti-cancer drug Cisplatin however offers desired toxic properties by disturbing the growth of fast growing cancer cells but affecting healthy cells as well.
Conclusion
In everyday life, there is little chance of humans or the environment to be exposed to platinum nanoparticles.
By the way…
The threshold limit value (TLV) for platinum and platinum combinations at the workplace is 2 µg/m3 per day.
Platinum (chemical symbol Pt) is a highly corrosion-resistant precious metal that remains very stable at high temperatures.
However, platinum also exhibits contradictory chemical behaviour. While it resists most chemicals like other precious metals, it becomes highly reactive in catalytic reactions, especially as fine particles. Platinum in the form of nanometre-sized powder is not self-igniting. Even as a finely dispersed mixture with air (dust) in the presence of an ignition source, platinum is not flammable. As a result, there is no risk of a dust explosion.
Platinum has a wide range of applications. It is used in the manufacture of jewellery, vehicle catalytic converters, laboratory equipment, dental implants and materials for electrical contacts. Industry processes platinum in the form of wires, sheets or tubes for use in electrical switch contacts, heating elements or thermocouples. Due to its high melting point and corrosion resistance, it is used in medical and technical equipment, such as trays or crucibles.
The second most important market for platinum is jewellery. This involves alloys consisting of 96 percent platinum and 4 percent copper, or 90 percent platinum and 10 percent palladium. It is used in particular for watch movements and jewellery settings. In medicine, it is used in cancer therapy, primarily as Cis-Platin (diamine dichloroplatinum; DDP, a complex-bound platinum atom).
Among the industrial applications of platinum, the use of the metal in the form of nanoparticles in automotive catalytic converters is particularly noteworthy. Numerous other chemical processes, such as the production of nitric acid, also make use of the catalytic properties of platinum nanoparticles. In fuel cells, platinum serves as an electrode material.
Platinum is a versatile catalyst. In addition to the applications mentioned above, it is also used in the production of silicones (hydrosilylation), and refineries use it to purify fuels. Platinum catalyses the selective hydrogenation of organic compounds as well as the electrochemical conversion of ammonia. In all these processes, platinum accelerates chemical reactions without being consumed in the process.
Membrane technology also makes use of platinum, particularly in the form of catalyst-coated membranes (CCMs). These are used in proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) and PEM electrolysers, where platinum is applied as a thin catalytic layer onto a polymer membrane. This enables efficient electrochemical reactions such as the conversion of hydrogen and oxygen into water or the electrolysis of water.
However, recent developments focus on further reducing platinum consumption by using ultra-thin coatings.
Occurrence and Production
Pure metallic platinum is now rarely mined. There are mines in South Africa, Russia, and Canada. Another source of platinum is the production of non-ferrous metals such as copper and nickel, in which the platinum group elements (palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, and ruthenium) are produced as by-products. After extraction, platinum is further purified using various chemical processes. In most cases, the differing solubility of platinum salts in various solvents is utilised (solvent extraction). Simply heating this product yields near-pure platinum, which is produced in the form of a nanoscale powder or platinum sponge.
Further Information
Becker, Ramona; Hartwig, Helga; Köppe, Herbert; Vanecek, Hans; Velić, Paul; Warncke, Rudolf; Zelle, Anna (1987). Gmelins Handbuch der anorganischen Chemie, 8. Auflage, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, ISBN 9783662062241.
Chen A, Holt-Hindle P. (2019). Platinum-based nanostructured materials: synthesis, properties, and applications. Chem Rev. 2010 Jun 9;110(6):3767-804. doi: 10.1021/cr9003902.
Daunderer, M (2007). Handbuch der Umweltgifte : klinische Umwelttoxikologie für die Praxis. ecomed, Landsberg/Lech, ISBN 3-609-71120-5.
Birds eye of turquoise and maroon water lake in nickel mine. Mindanao, Philippines. @MARYGRACE-stock.adobe.com
Production
Platinum is a rare precious metal and is primarily obtained as a by-product of nickel and copper mining. As a result, many sustainability indicators for platinum are difficult or even impossible to determine. The Republic of South Africa, the Russian Federation, and Zimbabwe are the world’s most important platinum-producing countries. Mining is carried out predominantly underground, although some operations also use open-pit methods.
Resource consumption during processing
Land use for platinum extraction is comparable to that of copper mining. Underground mining requires less surface area, as less waste rock needs to be stored. Water consumption per ton of ore extracted is high during mining operations. In addition, energy and water consumption for further processing of the ores are substantial.
Safety
Workplace safety in South African mines has steadily improved in recent years. The number of fatalities has declined. Health risks caused by dust exposure have also been reduced, resulting in fewer cases of lung disease.
Emissions
Deposits in Russia and Canada contain very high sulfide levels. During smelting, harmful sulfur dioxide is produced. For this reason, special gas-cleaning systems are used to treat the emissions. In tailings ponds, large amounts of sulfur can acidify soil and water. Therefore, measures have been established to reduce sulfur content in the waste material.
Indirect emissions generated during further ore processing must also be considered critical — primarily carbon dioxide, but also nitrogen oxides.
In South Africa and Zimbabwe, the electrical energy used for smelting platinum-bearing ores is largely generated from coal-fired power plants and is therefore associated with high CO₂ emissions.
In contrast, in vehicle exhaust catalysts, platinum helps prevent the formation of nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide.
Social Aspects
Platinum production is controlled by a small number of large companies. As a result, only a limited number of stakeholders benefit from the profits.
According to the weighted country risk for platinum-producing countries — which incorporates the World Bank’s Worldwide Governance Indicators — approximately 80% of platinum originates from countries where government effectiveness is considered weak. These countries often face challenges related to political stability, security, voice and accountability, and corruption.
In order to ensure environmentally responsible metal production, it is becoming increasingly important within the EU to closely monitor the origin and transportation throughout the supply chain.
The German Supply Chain Due Diligence Act (Lieferkettensorgfaltspflichtengesetz) requires companies with more than 1,000 employees to document or certify compliance with social standards and occupational health and safety requirements.
Various international organizations are working on traceability systems and certification schemes for platinum, some of which are already being implemented. These aim to ensure that specific social and safety standards are upheld in mining operations.
Waste and recycling
Overall, approximately 23–27% of platinum is recycled. However, the recycling rate depends strongly on the product category.
In the jewelry sector, for example, the recycling rate is very high because pure platinum is used in jewelry. The material can be easily melted down and reprocessed.
For automotive catalysts, the recycling rate in Germany is around 50–60%. The platinum contained in them is readily accessible and, due to its relatively high concentration, can be efficiently recovered.
In certain electronic components, however, recycling is problematic. Platinum is often used in small quantities and located in hard-to-access areas, making disassembly very labor-intensive. As a result, electronic components typically achieve only a low double-digit recycling rate.
How can the material be made more sustainable?
The use of renewable energy in extraction and smelting processes could significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions. A higher recycling rate is also achievable: recycling saves around 66% of the energy and a large share of the water consumption that would otherwise be required for mining and processing.
In addition, sustainability can be improved through compliance with social and environmental standards along supply chains. Certification schemes and legal frameworks such as the German Supply Chain Due Diligence Act play an important role in this regard.
Platinum is the element that gives its name to the so-called platinum group elements (or platinum-group metals), which also include palladium, ruthenium, and rhodium. The most common sources of exposure to platinum are industrial workplaces, automobile exhaust, medical applications, and, to a lesser extent, food or skin contact through jewelry.
Everyday contact
Platinum is found in many applications, ranging from automotive catalytic converters and jewelry to medical uses in dental alloys, implants, and cancer drugs. However, the primary source of human exposure in everyday life is particulate matter in the air. In addition to platinum, this particulate matter also contains palladium and rhodium. These materials are released in very small quantities with exhaust emissions. A 2022 study examined the concentrations of platinum and palladium in urban dust fractions in Moscow. The global concentrations of platinum cited in this study range from 0.15 ng/g to 764 ng/g. The largest amount of both platinum and palladium is bound to microparticles ..
In addition to this primary application, direct skin contact with platinum-containing jewelry is possible. Skin reactions upon contact with platinum-containing jewelry are generally rare, as platinum is considered to be very well tolerated. Nevertheless, depending on individual sensitivity and the alloy, reactions such as itching and redness may occur. Platinum alloys used in dental restorations or implants are also well tolerated.
The situation is different with drugs used to treat cancer cells. In this context, platinum (e.g., as cisplatin) is biologically very active and has a wide range of side effects.
Situation at the Workplace
In the workplace, platinum—like the other PGE—plays a role in ore extraction, dental practices, and the chemical industry. A distinction must be made between metallic platinum and platinum salts or compounds. Metallic platinum is inert and is considered to pose little risk. However, platinum salts can trigger occupational asthma (platinum asthma), which occurs primarily in the catalyst and chemical industries. A large-scale study demonstrated a quantitative correlation between the level of occupational exposure to chloroplatinate salts and sensitization. This association had already been observed in a similar manner in an earlier German study .
Consequently, different exposure limits apply in the EU—as well as in Germany and the U.S.—for metallic platinum and platinum salts, respectively. The limit value for metallic platinum dust is significantly higher at 1 mg/m³ as a time-weighted average for 8-hour shifts, 5 days a week. For platinum compounds, such as chloroplatinates, a recommended value of 2 µg/m³ applies for peak concentrations (List of MAK and BAT Values 2025; US OSHA).
Products and Customer
Platinum as a metal poses virtually no risk to consumers. The amounts found in three-way catalytic converters in automobiles are very small, and other sources of exposure are negligible. And yet, exposure through exhaust emissions from internal combustion engine vehicles does play a role in platinum exposure. A study involving three groups with different exposure patterns showed that residents of city centers had significantly higher platinum levels than the comparison groups—“rural residents” or the group exposed occupationally but not living in the city. To date, no release of platinum from dental implants or jewelry has been detected. A measurably higher excretion of platinum in urine was observed primarily in individuals with gold-platinum alloy dental fillings. The difference with platinum is similar to that with other PGE: the element’s compounds tend to have a greater effect than the metal itself, and organic complexes can be highly toxic, which is why they are also used as antitumor agents .
Platinum is generally safe. However, in certain forms—such as salts—it can trigger a type of asthma, especially in people who are frequently exposed to it, such as those working in the chemical industry.
Platinum nanoparticles or platinum bound to dust particles can be absorbed into the body when inhaled. They behave like particles of the same size made of other materials or like ultrafine dust. However, unlike platinum salts, the amounts of metallic platinum absorbed do not pose a risk to humans.
Uptake via the Lung
Automotive catalytic converters are the primary source of platinum exposure via the lungs. This also applies to other PGE such as rhodium and palladium. Studies show that no detectable toxic effects occur under normal environmental exposure.
A comprehensive inhalation study conducted in 2000 using various materials found no toxicological effects in rats exposed to platinum nanoparticles (18 nm). Furthermore, only a very small amount of the administered platinum was transported from the exposed lungs to the liver .
Uptake via the skin
Human skin can come into contact with platinum both in the workplace—for example, in precious metal refineries or in catalyst production—and in everyday use.
This includes direct contact with platinum salt solutions in the workplace, wearing jewelry, or having dental implants and other medical applications. However, the absorption of platinum salts through the skin (penetration) is very low and undetectable for metallic nanoparticles. Permeation of platinum nanoparticles through the skin has been observed only in damaged skin. An interesting observation regarding absorption through the skin was made in a study that compared skin samples from European women with those from dark-skinned African women. A significant difference was observed here: only a very small amount of platinum salts was transported through the skin of European women, whereas after 24 hours, nearly 10 times as much was transported through the skin of African women. Nevertheless, the amounts of platinum and its salts that can be absorbed through the skin are very low. The observed difference does not automatically imply a higher health risk ..
Uptake via the gastrointestinal Tract
Platinum and its compounds can be ingested through food and drinking water, as they occur as trace elements in the environment, particularly through emissions from automotive catalytic converters. Studies show, however, that the concentrations in food (usually < 1 µg/kg) and in drinking water (in the ng/L range) are very low. The oral bioavailability of metallic platinum is low, while soluble platinum salts are absorbed more readily but occur only in trace amounts in food. Overall, daily intake in the nanogram range is of negligible toxicological relevance. International assessments, such as those by the European “Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety (SCCS),” do not identify any significant health risk to the general population via the exposure pathways mentioned above.
The intake of platinum through food and water is of negligible health relevance due to the very small amounts involved.
Uptake via medical applications
Organic platinum compounds, particularly cisplatin and carboplatin, are used as anticancer drugs (cytostatics). The complexed platinum binds to DNA, thereby damaging rapidly growing cancer cells. These cells then die. Side effects from these drugs are significant, as the substances also damage healthy cells, particularly in rapidly growing areas such as the skin, kidneys, or hair.
In this context, however, special attention is paid to wastewater from hospitals, as the platinum compounds are excreted by patients in their urine over several weeks in virtually unchanged form. It has been demonstrated that untreated wastewater from hospitals can contain very high levels of cisplatin, and that the water only became more environmentally safe after the cytostatic drugs had been eliminated .
Although a measurable amount of platinum is released into the environment via car exhaust catalytic converters, the amount absorbed by the body is very low or virtually undetectable. However, platinum salts – in particular compounds such as cisplatin – can contaminate hospital wastewater, for example, and must therefore be treated using specialised methods.
Overall, there are few reliable data available on the intake and the risk posed by platinum nanoparticles to environmental organisms.
It is known that different microorganisms are capable of producing nanoparticles directly from platinum salts . As part of the INOS project a low toxicity of platinum nanoparticles towards gill cells of rainbow trout was found . However, the platinum particles used herein were only poorly characterised. In particular, there was no reliable information on the concentration, and impurities in the platinum particles suspension. Exposure to platinum nanoparticles slowed down the heartbeat of zebrafish embryos and led to a delayed hatching of fish from the eggs . This may indicate a retarded embryonic development.
In summary, platinum nanoparticles have not yet been studied extensively enough to carry out an evaluation of their effect on environmental organisms. However, there are preliminary indications that they might cause negative effects on organisms.
Metallic platinum nanoparticles in various forms do not cause any noticeable effects and are low in toxicity. Platinum salts, on the other hand, are of concern, whilst organic platinum compounds are used as anti-tumor drugs.
Distribution and Effects in the Body
Metallic platinum is not chemically or biologically active in any form, not even as nanoparticles. High doses of platinum nanoparticles — for example, when injected into the bloodstream or administered through a tube into the stomach — can also cause complications in the body. Treatment of rats with high doses (100 mg/kg) over 30 days led to kidney and liver damage. Extrapolated to a 70 kg human, this would amount to up to 210 grams of pure platinum in the form of nanoparticles administered directly into the stomach over 30 days. As a scientific study, this provides insight into the potential effects of high concentrations. However, this is not relevant for humans in everyday life, since daily exposure in this context amounts to 10–100 ng per day — many orders of magnitude below the toxic dose.
Platinum salts, on the other hand, can trigger asthma when inhaled, a condition that persists even after exposure has ceased. A skin prick test specific to platinum salts can detect very early on whether workers are sensitive to platinum salts, allowing them to change jobs before asthma develops ..
Uptake and Effects in Cells
Laboratory studies of platinum nanoparticles and platinum salts using cell cultures have generally confirmed the results of animal studies and are consistent with observations in exposed humans.
Experiments with metallic platinum nanoparticles in cell cultures showed no acutetoxicity even at ultra-high concentrations. Inflammatory reactions in the cells were only mild. It has been speculated that platinum particles could dissolve in aqueous suspensions (albeit very slowly); therefore, the effects of dissolved ions are also of interest.
Numerous studies show that dissolved platinum group elements can indeed be toxic, as they can interact with cellular DNA and thereby cause cellular damage. Even as little as 10 µmol/L of dissolved platinum can be critical for lung cells.
Although platinum nanoparticles are taken up by cells, they generally do not have a direct toxic effect there and do not enter the cell nucleus. At high concentrations, however, they can still cause DNA damage — but only because platinum ions are released from the particles. This makes it clear that it is not the particles themselves that are decisive, but rather the ions released from them, and effects occur primarily at very high concentrations .
Metallic platinum (including in the form of nanoparticles) has virtually no effect — neither in humans, nor in animal studies, nor in cell cultures. Dissolved platinum salts, on the other hand, can trigger allergic reactions such as asthma in humans.
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Wearing of platinum jewellery is unproblematic. Platinum particles are used in many technical applications e.g. for the manufacturing of electrical switch contacts, heat conductors or thermocouples. Due to its high melting temperature and corrosion resistance it is also applied in the construction of medical and technical devices. But for all these cases there is a limited chance for direct contact with free platinum particles. 60% of the global demand for platinum is used for automotive catalysts. Since small amounts of the catalyst are being released into the exhaust stream, there is the possibility for inadvertent respiratory contact with platinum nanoparticles by inhalation of car exhaust fumes.